1Amyloid occurs in the body as a result of
a. Immune complex
- Amyloid occurs in the body as a result of immune complex.
- Amyloidosis is a rare disease that occurs when an abnormal protein, amyloid build up in organ and interfere with normal functions.
- Amyloid are formed by aggregations of Beta- amyloid peptides that is generated by cleavage of larger proteins.
- Amyloid can be stained with dyes ( Congo red).
Pili concretions are made up of
c. Hairs
- Pili concretions are made up of hairs ( The word pili stands for hair).
Primary granules of neutrophils contains
c. Myeloperoxidase
- Neutrophils has at least 3 distinct granules:
- Primary or Azurophilic granules: It Contains potent hydrolytic enzymes ( elastase) and myeloperoxidases.
- Secondary or specific granules: It contains high level of iron binding protein lactoferrin.
- Tertiary or gelatinase granules, which contains matrix metalloproteinases.
- Basophils has 2 types of granules:
- Primary or Azurophilic: contains acid hydrolases and other enzymes.
- Specific granules: ( Includes heparin, histamine, leukotrienes and lysosomes).
- Eosinophils
- primary granules are absent
- large amount of secondary granules ( EPO - Eosinophils peroxidase; MBP- Major basic protein; ECP- Eosinophils cationic proteins).
The principal constituent of purulent exudates
c. Neutrophils
- Purulent exudates is thick and opaque exudates that is tan, yellow, green or brown in color. It is an inflammatory exudates with high concentration of leucocytes- predominantly neutrophils, dead cell matter and inflammatory molecules e.g. cytokines, lysozymes.
Hypostatic congestion is most common in
a. Lungs
- Hypostatic congestion is the pooling of blood in capillaries and vein in the dependent part due to effect of gravity. Occurs 1-2 hrs. after death and becomes stable after 12 hrs.
- Most common in lungs and Kidney.
Brown induration of lungs is common in a. Acute general passive hyperemia c. Chronic general passive hyperemia b. Acute local passive hyperemia d. Chronic local passive hyperemia
c. Chronic general passive hyperemia
- Passive hyperemia ( Congestion), according to it’s distribution classified as:
- Localized
- Generalized/systemic
- Further, according to onset and duration, Acute and Chronic
- Acute Local congestion: Sudden, complete venous obstruction occurs due to ligation of vein, thrombosis, mechanical pressure etc. seen in Strangulated hernia, Volvulus, intussusception, if collateral circulation present, no harm but if collateral circulation absent, local venous congestion, edema, cyanosis occurs.
- Chronic local congestion: Gradual, incomplete venous congestion caused by venous compression by tumor, enlarged lymph nodes, liver cirrhosis, portal venous congestion.
- Acute General Congestion: Occurs in acute Heart failure.
- Chronic general Congestion: Due to valve stenosis.
- Nutmeg liver: Condition seen during Right- sided heart failure or tricuspid valve stenosis.
- Induration of lung: Condition seen during left sided heart failure or bicuspid/mitral valve stenosis.
Proud flesh refers to the
b. Accumulation of excessive granulation tissue
- Proud flesh ( Granulation tissue) forms when an excessive amount of new tissues is produced when a wound is healing. Proud flesh usually occurs when skin starts to heal itself, granulation tissue forms over the wound followed by growth of skin over the granulation tissue.
Partial loss of epithelium on skin or mucus membrane is known as
b. Erosion
- Partial loss of epithelium on skin or mucus membrane - Erosion
- Wound in which only the superficial layer (epidermis) of skin is damaged - Abrasion
- Wound characterized by torn and uneven edges, caused particularly by rough and blunt objects - laceration/avulsion
- Wound produced by continuous striking of a blunt object and results in damage to S/C tissue without breaking the continuity of skin surface - Contusion. Contusion is classified as:
- 1 degree ( Bruises):Rupture of capillaries vessels in skin and S/C tissue and formation of ecchymoses, giving rise to bluish or purplish decloration of skin.
- 2nd degree: Rupture of larger vessels and hematoma
- 3rd degree: considerable destruction of tissue, may results in gangrene. ]
- Punctured wound: wound caused by sharp pointed objects. e.g. nails, characterized by narrow opening, deep in nature.
- Penetrating wound: Deep wound communicating with body cavities like abdomen, thorax, trachea etc.
- Perforated wound: Wound having two opening: One for entrance and one exits.
- Gunshot wound: Produced by various types of firearms, where point of entrance of bullet is marked by smaller opening on a skin.
The following are functions as Endogenous pyrogens except…….
d. IL-2
- Exogenous pyrogens are substances which originates outside the body and which are capable of inducing interleukin.
- Endogenous pyrogens are substance which originates inside the body, capable of inducing fever by acting on hypothalamic thermoregulatory center. Ex: IL-1, IL-6, TNF and Interferon.
Major basic proteins mainly present in the…...
b. Eosinophils
- Major basic proteins are mainly present in the Eosinophils ( Acidophils), which stain red or pink with acidic dyes ( Eosin).
Triple response in the inflammation was described by
a. Sir Thomas Lewis
- The triple response of inflammation, given by Sir Thomas Lewis, is a cutaneous response that occurs from the firm stroking of skin, produces an initial red line, followed by a flare around that line, and then finally a wheal.
- Julius Friedrich Cohnheim, pioneer of experimental pathology who helped to determine the morbid changes that occurs in animal tissue affected by inflammation, Tuberculosis and other disease state. He also conducted extensive research into the causes of inflammation.
- Elie Metchnikoff, Russian scientist, who was first to discover phagocytosis, a cell - mediated immune response to foreign matter.
- Claudius Galen’s discovery was that arteries carry blood although he did not discover circulation.
- Rudolf Virchow, ( Father of Modern pathology), stated that just as animals are unable to arise without previously existing animals, cells are unable to arise without previously existing cells.
Most chemical mediators of the inflammation cause an increase in vascular permeability only in
c. Venules
- -Most chemical mediators of the inflammation cause an increase in vascular permeability only in Venules.
- The chemical mediators of Inflammation includes:
- Vasoactive amines such as Histamine and Serotonin
- Peptide ( Bradykinin)
- Eicosanoids ( Thromboxane's, Leukotrienes, and prostaglandins).
Itching effect in the inflammation is produced by
b. Histamine
- Itching effects of inflammation is produced by Histamines.
- Description of different Chemical mediator of Inflammation are as Follow:
- Bradykinin: Most potent inflammatory mediator, activates signaling pathways resulting in increased vascular permeability, vasodilation, hypotension, pain and fever.
- Histamine: Potent inflammatory mediator, commonly associated with allergic reaction, promote vascular and tissue changes and possess high chemoattractant activity.
- Prostaglandins: Plays key role in generations of inflammatory response, contributes to development of cardinal signs of acute inflammation.
- Leukotrienes: LTB4, main functions is to promote inflammation by activating the production of inflammatory cells ( neutrophils) and molecules ( Cytokines).
…... helps in the proper folding of the protein in their transport across the ER and Golgi complex
c. Both a and b
- Chaperone ( Heat shock Protein) helps in the proper folding of proteins in their transport across ER and golgi complex.
- Chaperones are the group of proteins, responsible for ensuring that various processes such as translocation, degradation and folding of protein are carried out properly at all times.
- Since, Protein synthesis starts DNA of gene is transferred to mRNA through transcription, then mRNA undergoes translation to produces protein.
- However, synthesis of polypeptide does not guarantee the production of functional protein. The polypeptides must fold into correct 3- dimensional conformation, without aggregating or undergoing degradation, to ensure function of protein.
- Although, the amino acids sequences of mRNA polypeptide chain provides all information the protein needs to assume the correct 3- dimensional configuration, the intervention of other proteins necessary to ensure proper folding of protein within cells.
- Chaperone are the proteins that aids in the proper folding of other proteins by facilitating their assembly without being part of resulting complex.
Free radicals causes cell injury by
d. All
- Free radicals are chemical species with a single unpaired electron in outer orbit, readily react with organic or inorganic chemicals, attacks and degrades nucleus and membrane.
- Generation of free radicals:
- Cellular metabolism: produced from cell oxidation- reduction reactions e.g. Oxidative phosphorylation.
- Enzymatic metabolism of Exogenous chemicals produces intermediate metabolites which are highly reactive free radicals.
- Ionizing radiation hydrolyzes water into hydroxyl and hydrogen ions
- Divalent metals ( Transitional metal like Copper and irons) accept or donate free electrons during intracellular rxns i.e. catalyze free radicals formations.
- Important free radicals: superoxide anions, hydroxyl ions, hydrogen peroxide ( H2O2 is not itself free radical but generate OH ion from reaction with copper or ferrous ions.
- Free radicals causes cell injury by: a. lipid peroxidation of membrane b. cross linkage of protein c. DNA fragmentation
- Protection Mechanism of cells:
- Storage and transport proteins: Iron, Copper which catalyze formation of free radical are minimized by bound to storage and transport proteins ( Ceruloplasmin, transferrin, lactoferrin.
- Antioxidants ( Vitamin E, Glutathione, Vitamin A, Ascorbate etc.) block the formation of free radicals or scavenge them .
- Enzymes ( Glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, catalase etc.) . are free radical scavenger.
Inflammatory exudates has the property of
d. All
Difference between Transudates and Exudates fluids
Transudates Exudates The type of pleural effusion in which fluid is pushed through the capillary due to high pressure within the capillary The type of pleural effusion in which fluid leaks around the cell of capillary caused by inflammation occurs due to increased capillary hydrostatic pressure or decreased osmotic pressure occurs due to increased capillary permeability by an chemical mediator of inflammation Results in a filtrate of clear or pale yellow color fluid with low protein and cell content Results in a cloudy or bloody fluid with high protein and cell content Common cause: Congestive heart failure, chronic kidney disease, protein losing enteropathy, nephrotic syndrome, hepatic cirrhosis Common Cause: Infections, malignancies, pulmonary embolism, autoimmune disease. Specific gravity: < 1.015 Specific gravity >1.015 low protein content <3gm/dl, mainly albumin High ( >3gm/dl) LDH < 0.6 LDH >0.6 Difference between Transudates and Exudates fluid The inflammatory cell seen in acute inflammation is
a. Neutrophil
Difference Between Acute and Chronic Inflammation
Characteristics Acute Inflammation Chronic Inflammation Causative agent Pathogen, Injured tissue Persistent acute inflammation due to non- degradable pathogen, persistent foreign bodies, or autoimmune reactions. Major cell involved Neutrophils, Mononuclear cells (Monocyte and macrophage) Mononuclear cells (Monocyte, macrophage, Lymphocyte, plasma cell), fibroblast Primary mediator Vasoactive amines, Eicosanoid IFN-gamma, and other cytokines, growth factor, reactive oxygen species, hydrolytic enzymes Onset Immediate Delayed Duration few days upto many months or year Outcomes resolution, Abscess formation, chronic inflammation tissue destruction and healing (Fibrosis) Difference between Acute and Chronic Inflammation Lymphocyte predominates seen in the inflammatory exudates in condition like
a. Viral infection
- Although, Neutrophils is predominant cell in inflammatory exudates of all condition, lymphocytes are predominant in Inflammatory exudates of Viral infection.
Benign Tumor of Smooth muscles is known as
b. Leiomyoma
- Benign Tumor of Smooth muscles is known as Leiomyoma
- Malignant tumor of Smooth Muscle is known as Leiomyosarcoma
- Benign tumor of Striated Muscles is known as Rhabdomyoma
- Malignant Tumor of Striated Muscles is known as Rhabdomyosarcoma
- Benign tumor of Cardiac muscles - Myxoma
- Malignant tumor of Cardiac muscles- Cardiac sarcoma
- -Basal cell carcinoma also known as Rodent ulcer
Cytological method commonly used in diagnosis of tumor is
c. Both a and b
- Cytological methods commonly used in diagnosis of tumor is:
- a. Haematoxylin and Eosin method
- b. Papanicolaou test (Pap test): A procedure in which a small brush is used to gently removes cells from the surface of the cervix and the area around it so they can be checked under a microscope for cervical cancer or cell changes that may lead to cervical cancer.
Prostate cancer results in elevated levels of blood
b. Acid Phosphatase
- Prostate cancer results in elevated levels of Acid phosphatase in Blood.
- Some Others facts related to Tumors:
- The usual organ or site for the metastasis for the primary tumor is Lung.
- Chondromas are the benign tumor of cartilage
- Melanoma ( Type of Benign skin cancer), most commonly seen in Old dogs.
- Horn cancer affecting aged cattle, is a type of Squamous cell carcinoma.
- Sertoli cell tumor in male dog feminizing tumor while Seminoma is the musculizing tumor in female animals.
- Tumor arising from serosal epithelium are called as Mesothelioma
The cause which predispose to the occurrence of disease is called as
b. Predisposing cause
- The cause which predispose to the occurrence of disease is called as Predisposing cause.
- The agent responsible for the disease primarily comes outside the body is called Extrinsic factors while the agent responsible for disease primarily comes inside the body is called as Intrinsic factor.
Septic bacteria in the blood is known as
a. Septicemia
- Septic bacteria in the blood - Septicemia
- Toxin in the blood - Toxemia
- Pus in the blood - Pyemia
- An excess of blood in the vessels supplying an organ or other parts of body - Hyperemia
Light Blue Amorphous region in the cytoplasm of toxic neutrophils are known as
b. Dohle’s body
- Light Blue Amorphous region in the cytoplasm of toxic neutrophils - Dohl’s body
- Globular cytoplasmic inclusion composed of immunoglobulin, accumulated in Plasma cell - Russell body
- Cytoplasmic Eosinophilic Inclusion in Hepatocyte associated with ballooning and inflammation, seen in Liver Cirrhosis.
- Eosinophilic granules protein - Major Basic Protein
Self assembling, extracellular system of protein present in inactive form in plasma and body fluid is called as
c. Complement
- Self assembling, extracellular system of protein present in inactive form in plasma and body fluid is called : Complement
- C- reactive protein is the protein made by liver, which is send into the bloodstream in response of inflammation . In normal condition, it is low in blood.
- Haptaglobulin is the protein encoded by Haptoglobin gene, has high affinity to free hemoglobin, most often used to diagnose hemolytic anemia. Exceeded haptoglobin indicates a sign of acute rheumatic fever, ulcerative colitis or a heart attack.
Pathological epithelial hyaline is seen in prostate gland called as
b. Corpora amylacae
- Corpora amylacae is a general term for small hyaline masses found in the prostate gland, nervous system, lungs and sometimes in other organ of the body.
- Hyperkeratosis- Condition marked by thickening of the outer layer of the skin, made up of keratin.
- Zenker degeneration- severe glassy or waxy hyaline degeneration or necrosis of skeletal muscles in acute infectious disease.
- White muscle disease- Also known as nutritional myopathy, seen in young calves due to deficiency of Vit- E or selenium.
- Mucoid degeneration may be seen in condition like Myxoma, myxedema, malnutrition etc.
The tissue changes that occurs on excessive absorption of heat by the skin known as
d. Sun stroke
- The tissue changes that occurs on excessive absorption of heat by the skin known as Sun stroke.
- Heat stroke is condition when a core body temperature goes greater than 104F, with complication involving the CNS, that occur after exposure to high temperature.
- scald - burn by moist heat/steam .
28.
b. (Lipofuscin)
Lipofuscin is referred as Aging pigment.
Lipofuscin deposition is the important marker that indicates that cells suffered from free radicals injury.Pigment is referred as Aging pigment
b. Lead poisoning
- A blue line is seen at the junction of teeth and gum in Lead toxicity.
A blue line is seen at the junction of the teeth and the gums in
b. Toxic jaundice
- Biphasic type of Vanden berg reaction is seen in Toxic jaundice
- Van Den Bergh’s Reaction is a specific reaction to identify the increased serum bilirubin.
- Normal values: Total bilirubin - 0.2-1mg/dl ; Direct or conjugated bilirubin- 0.1-0.4mg/dl; indirect or unconjugated bilirubin - 0.2-0.7mg/dl
- Van Den Bergh's reagent - It is a mixture of equal volume of sulfanilic acid in dil HCL and Sodium nitrite
- Principle: when diazotized sulfanilic acid is mixed with bilirubin, then it forms purple color complex ( Azobilirubin)
- Van Den Bergh Reaction Response: 3 types:
- Direct positive: When sample treated with van den Bergh reagent, purple color comes within 30 seconds, called direct positive, indicated person suffering from post hepatic or obstructive jaundice ( Conjugated bilirubin- high)
- Indirect Positive: When sample treated with van den Bergh reagent, purple color comes only after addition of alcohol, called indirect positive, indicated person suffering from hemolytic jaundice or prehepatic jaundice ( Unconjugated bilirubin - high).
- Biphasic reaction: When sample treated with van den Bergh reagent, initially purple color is developed, but intensity of color is increased with addition of alcohol, called biphasic van den Bergh reactions, indicated person suffering from toxic or hepatic jaundice. ( Both unconjugated and conjugated bilirubin - high).
Note
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Biphasic type of Vanden berg reaction is seen in