The possible outcome and severity of disease is called
c. Prognosis
- Prognosis: Possible outcome and severity of disease.
- Lesion: An area in an organ or tissue of abnormal tissue change. Lesions vary in severity from harmless to serious.
- Pathogenesis: Development of disease and chains of events leading to that disease
- Etiology: Study of causative agent
- Signs: Objective findings of the doctor on the patients, based on analysis.
- Symptoms: Subjective complaints of the owner about his animal’s disease (Person’s perspective)
Local death of cells or tissue in the living animal is known as
b. Necrosis
- Necrosis: Local death of cells or tissue in the living organisms
- Apoptosis: Programmed cell death.
- Gangrene: Death of body tissue due to lack of blood flow or series of bacterial infections, commonly seen in arms and legs.
- While Degeneration and Regenerations are the terms associated with nerve injury:
- When there is nerve injury, Either Regeneration or Degeneration of nerve takes place.
- Criteria for nerve regenerations:
- Gap between cut ends should not more than 3 mm
- Nurilemma should be present
- Nucleus must be intact
- Two cut ends should remain in same line
Due to gravity, blood accumulate in lower side of body in dead animal, known as
c. Hypostatic congestion
- Due to gravity, blood accumulate in lower side of body in dead animal, known as Hypostatic congestion
- Ischemia is condition, characterized by lack of Oxygen
- Anemia is condition, characterized by either lack of RBC, lack of blood
- While Hyperemia and Congestion, both increases the volume of blood within dilated vessels of an organ/tissue.
Hyperemia Congestion Active process Passive Process Arteriolar Dilation Impaired Venous Outflow Affected organ - Red/Pink Affected organ - Bluish Example: Skeletal muscles during Exercise Cardiac failure, Venous obstruction Difference between Hyperemia and Congestion In coagulative necrosis, there is
c. Both a and b
- Necrosis is defined as spectrum of morphological changes that follows cell death in living tissues.
- Cytoplasmic changes: increase eosinophils, glassy homogenous appearance, vacuolated cytoplasm, calcified dead cells, appearance of myelin figure.
- Nuclear changes: Karyolysis, karyorrhexis, pyknosis
Types of Necrosis:
- Coagulative necrosis: Preservation of general tissue architecture/ affected tissue- firm/ denature of structural protein/ enzymatic digestion of cell.
- Liquefactive necrosis: Tissue becomes liquid/ material - creamy yellow/ seen in brain and abscess.
- Caseous necrosis: Type of coagulative necrosis, seen in TB characterized by cheesy white deposition in tissue.
- Fat necrosis: Seen in Pancreas, Breast, activated lipase causes fat necrosis.
- Fibrinoid necrosis: Deposition of fibrin like material seen in peptic ulcer, hypertension, immunologic cell injury.
- Gangrenous necrosis:
- a. Wet gangrene: occurs in moist tissue (mouth, bowel, lung, cervix), bed sores; Venous obstruction (moist, swollen, dark); no clear demarcation line; bacterial contamination is present.
- b. Dry gangrene: toes, feet due to arteriosclerosis, thromboangitis, trauma; arterial obstruction (dry, shrunken, black); clear line of demarcation; No bacterial contamination.
- c. Gas gangrene: Gangrene caused by gram +ve Anaerobic bacteria, seen in muscles and colon.
Macrophages laden with hemosiderin pigment, known as
c. Heart failure cells
- -Macrophages laden with haemosiderin pigment, known as Heart failure cells. These heart failure cells are found in Lungs.
- Gitter cells: Enlarged phagocytic cells of microglial origin having cytoplasm distended with lipid granules and being, characteristics of some organic brain lesion.
- Pus cells: composed of macrophages and neutrophils, to combat infections.
- Astrocyte: sub type of glial cells in CNS.
Collection and Examination of tissue in the live animals is known as
c. Biopsy
- Collection and examination of tissue in the live animals, known as Biopsy
- Autopsy/Necropsy- Post mortem examination to discover cause of death or extent of disease.
Protein secreted by lymphocyte on stimulation by an antigen is called as
a. Lymphokines
- Lymphokines: These are cytokines produced by T-cells (Lymphocytes) of immune system.
- Monokines: These are cytokines produced by monocytes and macrophages that has a regulatory effect on functions of other cells such as lymphocytes. Monokines includes interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor, alpha and beta- interferon, and colony stimulating factor.
- Cytokines: Broad and loose category of small proteins important in cell signaling. Cytokines has been shown to be involved in autocrine, paracrine and endocrine signaling as immunomodulating agent.
Histamine is secreted by an inflammatory cell
b. Basophils
- Histamine is secreted by an inflammatory cell - Basophils
- Eosinophil (Acidophil) variety of WBC responsible for combating multicellular parasites and certain infections. Eosinophils are inflammatory cells mostly seen in parasitic infestation, allergy, skin disease etc.
- Neutrophils: plays major role in 1st line of defense.
- Monocytes: largest type of leucocytes in blood, can differentiate into macrophages ( in tissue) and dendritic cells.
Antibodies or immunoglobulins are produced by
d. Plasma cell
- Plasma cells: Type of immune cells that makes large amount of specific antibody. Plasma cells are developed from B- cells.
- Lymphocytes: Type of WBC, includes natural killer cells, T- cells and B-cells.
- Monocytes: Phagocytic cell in Blood
- Macrophages: Phagocytic cell in tissue.
When the suppurative inflammation involves the connective tissue diffusely, it is termed as
a. Cellulitis
- Diffuse suppurative inflammation of connective tissue - Cellulitis
- Swollen area, within body tissue, containing an accumulation of pus - Abscess
- Mass of cells and fluid that has seeped out of blood vessel or organ, especially in inflammation- Exudates
Small focal suppurative area in the hair follicle or sebaceous gland, known as
b. Furuncle
- Furuncle: Skin abscess caused by Staphylococcal infections which involves hair follicles and surrounding tissues.
- Carbuncles: Are clusters of Furuncles connected subcutaneously causing deeper suppuration and scarring.
- Boils: Bump forms, containing pus under skin as result of Staphylococcus infections develop at site where skin is broken by small injury or insect bite.
In TB, type of giant cell seen is
c. Langhan’s giant cell
- In TB, type of Giant cell seen is Langhan’s giant cell. It consists of fused macrophages oriented around TB antigen with multiple nuclei at peripheral position representing most successful type of host- tissue response.
- Tumor giant cells: Rare, aggressive non-cancerous tumor cells
- Foreign body giant cells: Collection of fused macrophages (giant cells) which are generated in response to presence of large foreign body.
- Touton giant cells: Multinucleated cells having vacuolation in cytoplasm due to high lipid content.
Glycogen in a cell is demonstrated by using
d. All
- The glycogen in cells is demonstrated using all stain (PAS, Best’s caramine, Iodine).
- Note: PAS (Periodic acid Schiff stain is a staining method used to detect polysaccharide such as glycogen, and muco substances such as glycoprotein, glycolipid and mucin in tissues.
Mucin is stained blue color by the stain
a. Alcian Blue
- Alcian blue will color acidic mucin - blue but will not color neutral mucin. To visualize neutral mucin, Alcian blue followed by PAS - which stained neutral mucin - magenta. Cells that have both acidic and neutral mucins show dark blue or purple color.
- Hematoxylin and Eosin stain (H & E stain): One of principal tissue stain, where hematoxylin precisely stain nuclear components including heterochromatin and nucleoli while Eosin stains cytoplasmic components including collagen and elastic fibers, muscles fibers and RBC.
- H & E stain helps to identify different types of cells and tissue and provides important information about pattern, shape and structure of cells in tissue. Used to diagnose disease (Cancer).
Decrease in size of an organ after it has attained its full normal growth
a. Atrophy
- Decrease in size of organ after it has attained full normal growth - Atrophy
- Increase in size of organ due to increase in size of cell - Hypertrophy
- Increase in size of organ due to increase in number of cell - Hyperplasia
- Change in one form of cell to another - Metaplasia
- Complete failure of all or part of an organ to develop during embryonic growth - Agenesis
- Reversion of differentiation in cells, characterized by Pleomorphic cell extremely hyperchromatic and large nucleus, indicator of cancer. - Anaplasia
- Disorderly but non neoplastic proliferation of cell - Dysplasia
Note:
Hyperplasia and keratinization of skin epithelium occurs in Vit-A deficiency
Continuous inactivity of a part of the body particularly muscles, results in
b. Disuse atrophy
- Continuous inactivity of a part of the body particularly muscles, results in Disuse atrophy
- Atrophy of tissue resulting from excessive pressure applied to tissue - Pressure atrophy
- Disease related muscles atrophy characterized by fatigue, weakness, results in exercise limitation and poor quality of life- Exhaustion atrophy
- Atrophy caused by not using the muscles enough, reversed with exercise and better nutrition's- Physiologic atrophy
The deposition of Calcium salt in the local area of tissue, which is degenerated, dying or dead
a. Dystrophic calcification
- Abnormal deposition of Calcium salts occurs in any tissue except bone and teeth - Pathological calcification
- Pathological calcification is of two types:
Features Dystrophic calcification Metastatic calcification Definition deposition of Calcium salts in dead and degenerated tissues Deposition of Calcium salts in normal tissues Calcium metabolism Normal Deranged serum Calcium level normal Hypercalcemia reversibility Irreversible reversible with correction metabolic disorder Causes Necrosis, Infarction, thrombosis, tumor hyperparathyroidism, hypervitaminosis -D, hypercalcemia Difference between Dystrophic and Metastatic calcification Calcium salt in tissue can be confirmed by using special stains
c. Both a and b
- Calcium salt deposition in tissue can be confirmed by using special stain i.e. Von Kossa and Alizarine red S.
- Von Kossa stain is widely used in histology to detect the presence of abnormal Calcium deposits in body. The principle of this coloration is based on transformation of Calcium salts into silver salts. Calcium ions that bound to phosphates are replaced by silver ions, brought by solution of silver nitrate.
- Alizarine S red stain is an anthraquinone dye used to stain for Calcium deposits which are indicator of mature osteocytes.
Cardinal sign of inflammation are
d. All
The Five cardinal signs of Acute inflammation
Cardinal Signs Reasons Redness (Rubor) Vasodilation Heat ( calor) vasodilation Swelling (Tumor) fluid migration from blood vessel to site of inflammation Pain (Dalor) stretching of pain receptor and nerve by inflammatory exudates, chemical mediator Loss of functions ( Functiolaesa) Pain, disruption of tissue structure, fibroplasia and metaplasia Five Cardinal sign of Inflammation along with its reason Cells comes out through breaks in blood vessels is referred as
c. Rhexis
- Diapedesis: Passage of blood cells through capillary walls into tissue due to increase vascular permeability.
- Pavementation: Sticking of WBC to the lining of the finest blood vessel (capillary) when inflammation occurs.
- Rhexis: Cells comes out due to breakage/rupture of blood vessels.
- Extravasation: leakage of blood, lymph or other fluid from blood vessel, lymph vessel or other tube into tissue around it. Mainly seen during inflammation and metastasis.
Staining of tissue with hemoglobin after death of an animal is referred as
b. Livor mortis
- Algor mortis: Postmortem temperature changes characterized by change in body temperature until the ambient temperature is matched.
- Livor mortis: Discoloration of the body (Purplish red discoloration) as a result of pooling of blood in body due to gravity and lack of circulation as a result of cessation of cardiac activity.
- Rigor mortis: Stiffening of joints and muscles of body a few hrs. after death, usually lasting 1 to 4 days.
- Pseudomelanosis: A dark greenish or blackish postmortem discoloration of surface of abdominal viscera, resulting from action of sulfureted hydrogen ions on iron of disintegrated hemoglobin.
Fragmentation of nucleus is referred as
b. Karyorrhexis
- Karyorrhexis: Destructive fragmentation of the nucleus of the dying cells whereby its chromatin is distributed irregularly throughout the cytoplasm. Rupture of the nuclear membrane occurs.
- Karyolysis: Melting of the nucleus chromatin with enzymes nucleases, released from lysosomes of dead cells. Nuclear membrane - preserved.
- Pyknosis: Shrinkage or condensation of cells with high nuclear compactness or density.
In avian inflammation………. cells are seen in abundance in comparison to mammals
b. Basophils
- In avian inflammation, basophils cells are seen in abundance in comparison to mammals.
- The basis of inflammation remains same in both avian and mammals, however, there are some differences in reaction in birds:
- In birds, there is high permeability in venules while in mammals, there is high permeability in arterioles/ capillary.
- in birds, heterophils - 1st line of defense followed by mononuclear cells while in mammals, neutrophils - 1st line of defense.
- In birds, basophils seen in abundance at site of inflammation, which is rare in case of mammals.
- In birds, perivascular cuffing is common while in mammals, it’s only seen in case of brain
- Giants' cells seen in both acute and chronic inflammation in birds while in mammals, only seen in chronic inflammation.
- In birds, inflammation caused by phytohemagglutinin, characterized by skin response with infiltration of heterophil, basophils, monocytes, in mammals, no neutrophils and basophils in this inflammation.
Wilm’s tumor is neoplasm of
c. Kidney
- Wilm’s tumor is neoplasm of kidney. Wilm’s tumor, also known as nephroblastoma.
- -Most common testicular tumor of dogs - Leydig cells tumors
- Bence Jones Protein (Tumor markers), part of monoclonal antibody, very small, not normally detectable in urine, found in urine with neoplasm of multiple myeloma (Bone marrow cancer).
Mesothelioma originates from mesothelium of
d. All
- Mesothelioma originates from mesothelium of peritoneum, pleura, pericardium etc.
Radiation affects the dividing cells of
d. All
- Dividing cells (Rapidly growing cells) are prone to effects of radiations
- Radiosensitivity of tissue:
- Highly radiosensitive: Lymphoid tissue, Bone marrow, GI tissue, Gonads, Embryonic tissue etc.
- Moderately radiosensitive: Skin, vascular endothelium, lungs, kidney, liver, lens
- Least radiosensitive: CNS, Muscles, bone and cartilage.
Cloudy swelling is characterized by hazy cytoplasm due to swollen
c. Mitochondria
- Cloudy swelling is characterized by hazy cytoplasm due to swollen mitochondria.
Presence of foreign materials in blood vessel is known as
b. Emboli
- Emboli: Presence of foreign material in blood vessels
- Thrombus: Blood clot formed in situ within vascular system of body and impeding blood flow
- Ischemia: Condition in which blood flow (thus oxygen) is restricted or reduced in parts of body
- Infarction: tissue death or necrosis due to inadequate blood supply.
Epithelial pearl is an example of ………. degeneration
c. Hyaline
- Epithelial pearls (Keratin pearls), example of hyaline degeneration seen in squamous cell carcinoma.
Choleliths may cause……. jaundice
b. post hepatic
- 3 types of Jaundice are seen:
- prehepatic - Due to excessive hemolysis (unconjugated bilirubin increases in blood)
- hepatic - Due to Impairs cellular uptakes, defective conjugation. (Both unconjugated and conjugated bilirubin increases in blood)
- Post hepatic: Due to impairs excretions (Conjugated bilirubin increases).
Note
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